Carbonation of concrete occurs due to ingress of atmospheric CO2 into concrete, resulting in cracks within the concrete and increasing the steel corrosion rate [68]. Carbonation is a primary cause for excessive cracks in the concrete causing corrosion of bridge steel bars and damage to the bridge structure. Furthermore, three types of concrete surface protection can be used, which are a siloxane pore liner, an epoxy resin coating and an acrylic resin coating to prevent the penetration of aggressive agents such as carbon dioxide [69].
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